Biodiversity Conservation through Domestication of High Value Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Mountain Ecological Landscapes of Nepal
22.12.2011
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SUBMITTED ORGANISATION :
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Kathmandu Forestry College
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DATE OF SUBMISSION :
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22/12/2011
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REGION :
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Southern Asia
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REGION :
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Southern Asia
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COUNTRY :
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Nepal
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SUMMARY :
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This report is part of the case studies “Biodiversity Conservation through Domestication of High Value Medicinal Plants in Mountain Ecological Landscapes of Nepal” conducted in Rasuwa District of Nepal during the second half of 2011. This study was conducted in four resource poor Village Development Committees (VDCs), namely Shyaphru, Ramche, Dhunche and Bhorle of Rasuwa district. The project on domestication of medicinal plants for livelihood improvement and biodiversity conservation was implemented by the Nepal Agroforestry Foundation (NAF), the partner institution of the Kathmandu Forestry College in the beginning of 2008. Main objective (Goal) of this project was to conserve Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and improve livelihood of the local people. The project purpose was to get food sufficiency through MAPs integration into existing farming system and thereby increase productivity. The major activities of the project included home nursery of medicinal plants, technical skills transfer, exposure visits, cultivation of medicinal plants in both private and public lands, cooperative formation and linkage with big companies and booklets publication. Through this project, farmers received technical training on MAP cultivation and management. The publication of package of practices of three MAP species (Swertia chirayita, Veleriana jatamansii and Rheum austral) is another important deliverable conducted during the project period. Almost half of the households (260) directly benefited from this project. The analysis revealed that the project beneficiary households produced 1.3 million MAP seedlings in home nursery and enough seeds from the cultivated MAPs in 2011, which contributed to reduced pressure on wild medicinal plant resources and thereby increased bio-diversity conservation. Total annual average income of the direct beneficiary households increased from Rs 31,084 in 2008 to 34,450 (1 USD = 71 NPR) in 2011. Overall cash income of the direct project beneficiary households increased by 11 percent during this period as a result of project intervention, while increasing medicinal plant cultivation area by almost 10 percent and maintaining MAP population in the wild. Income from MAPs was almost doubled from Rs 3,604 in 2008 to Rs 6,500 in 2011. Recommendations are made to improve the existing biodiversity situation and livelihoods of local communities.
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AUTHOR：
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Dr. Pandit is a Nepalese citizen (53 year old), completed Ph.D. research in the field of Rural and Regional Development Planning and Watershed management at the School of Environment, Resources and Development (SERD) of the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand in 2003. Dr. Pandit is now being involved with Kathmandu Forestry College (KAFCOL) as a Principal and facilitating Social research component of the College and teaching forestry courses for BSc students at KAFCOL and master students at IOF, Pokhara. Dr. Pandit has worked as a professional for more than a decade with several NGOs and INGOs, including International Center for Mountain Development (ICIMOD) as Sustainable Livelihood Consultant, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as National Consultant in more than three projects, The World Conservation Union (IUCN) as Senior Technical Advisor, the Nepal Australia Community Resource Management Project (NACRMP) as Rural Development NGO Advisor, World Neighbors, South Asia Area Office, Kathmandu, as Project Coordinator. Dr. Pandit has got a proven record of capability for conducting participatory Social research and implementing and coordinating various community based resource management projects. Dr. Pandit served the Nepal Agroforestry Foundation (NAF), one of the leading NGOs of Nepal, as a president for three years (1997-2000) and as an Executive Director for about five years. Dr. Pandit led various Social research projects with New ERA. The major projects led by Dr. Pandit include Poverty and Food Security Assessment in Mid and Far Western Regions of Nepal (January to February 2007), Risk Assessment of Monitoring and Reporting of the UN Security Council Resolution 1612 Activities in Nepal (April to May, 2007), long term research in Improving Livelihood and Equity in Community Forestry in Nepal (March 2004 to December 2007) and Impact study of Action Aid supported program in Hills and Terai (August 2005 to April 2006). Dr. Pandit has developed strong leadership and capability to work with rural people in the search of gender and social inclusion issues and have published more than a dozen of papers in international journals, workshop proceedings and reports. He published more than a dozen of journal articles, workshop proceedings and books related to forestry and Non-Timber Forest Product management in Nepal. Three journal articles are quite famous, which include: (i) Tragedy of Non-Timber Forest Products in Mountain Commons of Nepal published in Environment Management, (ii) Poverty and Resource Degradation in the Mountains of Nepal" in Society and Natural Resources and (iii) Community based forest enterprises in Nepal: An analysis of their role in increasing income benefits to the poor in Small Scale Forestry (see detail in CV). This has demonstrated his skill in writing scientific paper and reports.
1.Introduction
In recent years, bio-diversity conservation and poverty reduction through effective use and management of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) has become a fervent agenda of many scientists and development practitioners in the mountain region (De Beer, 1996; Larsen, 2000; Pandit and Kumar, 2010). MAPs have an important role to play in rural communities for people’s livelihoods (Arnold, 1995; Pandit et al. 2009). MAPs are also inextricably linked to regional natural bio-diversity. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have long been a source of income of resource poor farmers of mid-hills and mountain region of Nepal. Despite these benefits, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) are increasingly faced with major threats from various environmental, socio-economic and institutional factors and also due to expansion of unregulated trade and commercial use (over harvesting, inadequate processing and storage). Swertia chirayita (Chiraitta), Veleriana jatamansii (Sugandhawal) and Rheum austral (Padamchal) are examples of some high value MAPs under threat in study district, Rasuwa due to their market value (Pandit and Kumar, 2010). The existing agro-based farming system in the hills is constrained by lack of new technology and infertile and limited land availability and thus resulting in possible food deficits with an increase in population in the foreseeable future. To address these problems, integration of MAPs domestication into existing farming systems was thought to be one of the viable options for the resource poor farmers for their sustainable livelihood and bio-diversity conservation in mountain ecological landscapes.
Out of about 7000 species of plants recorded in Nepal, approximately 700 species have medicinal properties (Edwards1996; Subedi, 2003). Some of them are better suited to fragile mountain conditions and more profitable than cereal crops (Pandit, 2003). In Nepal, many rural poor have been involved in harvesting of wild MAPs for survival (Olsen, 1998; Pandit et al, 2009). This activity has supplemented their meager income from subsistence agriculture although they have not been able to receive their due share because of the manipulation and exploitation by traders and middlemen. Besides, after the initiation of World Trade Organization (WTO) in Nepal, direct subsidy on the production of tradable MAP goods and agricultural crops have been removed or reduced. This has created global competition in the production of tradable agricultural commodities. Due to a lack of advanced infrastructure, technology and manpower, it is very difficult for countries of hill regions, for example, because of cheap rice imported by Nepal from India. Thus the countries like Nepal have to identify commodities for which the country is at a comparative advantage. Due to the presence of different micro-climates, Nepal has strength to produce special MAP crops, which are grown in its climate niches. Many MAP species need such climate niches, which do not exist in other regions.
In order to address the above problems, the project was implemented by the Nepal Agroforestry Foundation (NAF), the founding member of the Kathmandu Forestry College in 4 VDCs (Shyaphru, Ramche, Dhunche and Bhorle) of Rasuwa district from July 2008 to June 2011. The project aimed at decreasing pressure on medicinal plants in the wild, enhancing bio-diversity conservation and increasing production of farmland through MAPs integration.
2.Implementation strategies adopted by the project
The project was targeted to Tamang and Sherpa of four VDCs (Ramche, Dhunche, Shyaphru and Bhorle) of Rasuwa district. As the project was demand driven, it was therefore implemented through grass roots level farmer groups- mostly mixed. Twelve groups were formed. Beneficiary selection was made through Participatory poverty analysis (PPA). NAF worked in collaboration with the concerned government body i.e. Langtang National Park (LNP) and District Forest Office (DFO) especially in legal issues associated with MAP domestication and capacity building of the local groups for biodiversity conservation. For technical support NAF established a working relationship with the District Agriculture Development Office (DADO) and other green sector line agencies such as District Soil Conservation Office (DSCO) and District Veterinary and Livestock Offices. Grass roots level organizations were mobilized for strengthening the local groups. Demo plots were established in private land for encouragement to the farmers. The project considered the gender issue. It also involved marginalized communities i.e. Tamang and Sherpa in most project activities.
Both men and women farmers were provided with trainings required for domestication and they were encouraged to participate in various sharing meetings at village as well as district level. Women were involved at every level of the project from design to implementation. Female farmers were encouraged to take the leadership in domestication of MAPs and utilize the income generated from its sale for household expenditure and education of the children. Male members of the group assisted females in MAP promotion activities and the possible work load added to women by this project was minimal.
3. Methodology
This study has adopted a multipronged approach to collect relevant information. Following methods were applied to gather first hand information from project beneficiaries, stakeholders and project staff.
3.1 Household survey
Out of 265 farm households organized in 12 farmers groups for project intervention, 139 farm households organized in 10 groups were surveyed in 2008 for baseline information. A survey form developed in 2008 was used to collect basic information in 2008 (Annex I). The same form was used to collect farm household information in 2011 and the same 139 households were surveyed in 2011 for comparison.
A survey was carried out in the last week of June 2011 by deputing field staff. An orientation was given to the interviewers on how to carry out the household level survey. The quality of survey conducted in the field was supervised and monitored on a regular basis. The surveyed forms were collected and brought to Kathmandu and were processed in an excel sheet. The information obtained in 2011 through fresh surveys was than compared with the information collected in 2008 to trace out the changes contributed by the project.
3.2 Focus group discussion
A focus group discussion was organized in each of the target villages during the latter part of June 2011. This discussion was held in a public school compound and all farmers were requested to express their ideas and opinions in an open and fair manner. The group was facilitated based on a checklist from the Assistant Forest Conservation Officer of the Lamtang National Park. The data collection was supervised by NAF and KAFCOL.
Qualitative information particularly motivation of farmers towards medicinal plants, its future prospect for expansion in farmland, biodiversity conservation, profitability, problems in MAPs cultivation, market price, trading system of MAPs, contribution of NAF through this project in propagation and domestication of MAPs, and contribution and assistance to farmers from line agencies of the government were collected through focus group discussion.
3.3 Key Informant Survey
Key informants from various district line agencies such as the Assistant Forest Officer of District Agriculture Development Office and Assistant Conservation Officer of Lamtang National Park were interviewed by the evaluation team in their offices. Information on coordination of the project during its implementation with line agencies of the government and stakeholders, cooperation and support from line agencies to the project, feeling of the stakeholders towards the project and integration of this project learning in public programs were collected through key informant interviews.
3.4 Meeting with project staff
A joint meeting between the M&E team from NAF central office and field project staff who were involved directly or indirectly in project implementation, was organized and opinions of the staff on problems and prospects on MAP domestication in farmland and factors affecting project implementation and lesson learned from this project were collected in this meeting.
3.5 Review of project documents and literature
A thorough review of project documents including approved project proposal, trimester reports, annual compiled report, base line information and other project documents pertaining to medicinal plant domestication and use was done.
4. Major outputs of the project
Output 1: Increased sufficiency and availability of MAPs seeds and seedlings
The project has made significant production and distribution of seeds and seedlings of MAPs particularly Swertia chirayita in the project VDCs and beyond the project VDCs as a spillover effect. Farmers produced sufficient amount of seed and seedlings of MAPs in their farmland and the district has self sufficiency in this species. A total of 260 households were trained in medicinal plants nursery development, cultivation and harvesting, of which 182 (70%) farm households developed home nurseries in the project area. In an average 70 percent of the farm households 7,300 seedlings were produced per household per annum (Table 1) which is a significant contribution of the project in MAP domestication. Before the start of the project, farmers used to collect small amounts of medicinal plant species from forests for their domestic use, which had degraded the MAP population in the wild. Now the framers produce MAP species in their own land.
Table 1: MAP seedling production by trained farmers in project VDCs in 2011
| VDCs | HH number | Trained families | Average size (M2) of home nursery | Seedling production per household | Annual seedling production in home nursery |
| Shypru |
106 |
74 |
(10×20) = 200 |
10,000 |
740,000 |
| Ramche |
95 |
67 |
(8×15) = 120 |
6,000 |
402,000 |
| Dhunche |
41 |
29 |
(6X12) = 72 |
3,600 |
104,400 |
| Bhorle |
18 |
12 |
(10×15) = 150 |
7,500 |
90,000 |
| Total |
260 |
182 |
146 |
7,300 |
1,336,400 |
Source: Estimate of project staff and leader farmers during FGD and joint evaluation in June, 2011
Annually the project farmers produce 1.3 million seedlings in 4 project VDCs. Besides, the trained farmers and other individual farmers have also learned from the project and established home nurseries.
Output 2: Technical capacity of farmers increased in MAPs cultivation
The project has made a significant contribution to enhancing technical capacity of farmers in domestication and cultivation of MAPs in four project VDCs. To encourage farmers towards domestication of MAPs and to enhance their skills and knowledge, an exposure visit was organized in the first year of the project in Dolkha district for 22 leader farmers. Leader farmers observed domestication of MAPs in private land and community forestry and imparted knowledge on domestication, cultivation, harvesting and marketing processes. Skills and knowledge gained by these farmers through this exposure was shared with their colleagues in their respective group. This type of exposure visit helped to broaden their knowledge and skill on domestication of MAPs.
According to project staff and available reports during assessment, eight slots of MAP nursery management, cultivation and harvesting trainings were organized for 131 male and 129 female (total 260) famers during the project period (Table 2). On average there were 20 participants in each slot. However, the number of participants in each group varied by location due to travel distance from their home to the training venue. The number of participants in one event ranged from 13 to 25.
Table 2: Training for farmers on medicinal plant nursery management, cultivation and harvesting
| VDCs |
Number of groups |
Male |
Female |
Total households |
| Shypru |
5 |
56 |
50 |
106 |
| Ramche |
4 |
52 |
43 |
95 |
| Dhunche |
2 |
15 |
26 |
41 |
| Bhorle |
1 |
8 |
10 |
18 |
| Total |
12 |
131 |
129 |
260 |
Source: Project records, 2011
Discussion with farmers revealed that the transfer of MAPs nursery management, cultivation and harvesting skills and knowledge from those farmers trained by the project has a multiplier effect. Every farmer in the focus group discussion reported that they had educated their neighbors, relatives and colleagues on MAPs domestication. A team of seven project staff members deputed in the field supported the farmers groups to enhance their technical knowledge on domestication and cultivation. The team supported woman leader farmers in organizing and facilitating trainings at local level and visited every nursery and cultivation site during the entire project period. Timely follow up by staff as well as from the collaborating organizations was done so that farmers were updated with new information and technical knowhow.
Seeds of some medicinal plants along with nursery materials like water cane, plastic sheets, and small pipes for irrigation, sprinklers etc. were provided to the farming households. The farmers who could not grow seedling in their farm due to failure were provided with seedlings produced by project nursery for direct cultivation. The project has made an equitable distribution of support materials to all trained farmers. Equal amounts of support materials including seeds were distributed among the group members. Discussion with farmers revealed that the need for these support materials was different among the farmers based on their interest and the size of cultivation of MAPs in private land.
Output 3: Farmers groups institutionalized
Farmer’s group formation and their institutionalization is one of the important activities of the project. Altogether 12 farmer groups were formed during the entire project period. About half of the members in farmer groups were female. An authorized executive committee comprising 7-11 members with chairperson, secretary, treasurer and members was formed in each group with active participation and consensus of all stakeholder farmers. Altogether, 265 households were organized in MAP groups for domestication of medicinal plants in project VDCs (Table 3). The majority of farmers organized in the group were from marginalized ethnic groups including Tamang and Sherpa. On average 22 households were organized in a group with a good mix of male and female headed households. The group members were trained on group dynamic, group functioning, coordination and domestication of MAP in their farmland.
Table 3: MAP farmers groups by VDC and sex
| VDCs |
Number of groups |
Male |
Female |
Total households |
| Shypru |
5 |
57 |
52 |
109 |
| Ramche |
4 |
53 |
43 |
96 |
| Dhunche |
2 |
15 |
27 |
42 |
| Bhorle |
1 |
8 |
10 |
18 |
| Total |
12 |
133 |
132 |
265 |
Source: Project records, 2011
MAPs domesticator farmers of four VDCs have formed a network of their own, which has been registered as a cooperative recently. They are running saving credit programs and marketing of MAPs. A better sense of coordination and institutionalization is observed among the users forming a good network in order to market MAPs fetching more profit. Every group is strictly functional based on their group’s mandates and operational guidelines. Every decision was well recorded and endorsed in presence of members and formal structures identified. The existing cooperative had established linkage with major stakeholders for sustainable marketing of the products. All the farmers were equally benefitted because they had an equal share in the group. This is how farmer groups were found institutionalized.
Output 4: Pressure on natural resource base of the three MAPs decreased
It was observed that the project has made a tremendous contribution to domestication and cultivation of medicinal plants within and outside the project beneficiaries and it is imperative to conclude that the project has significantly contributed to the reduction of pressure on natural resource base in the district, particularly on three MAP species (Swertia chirayita, valeriana jatamansi and Rheum australe). On average direct project beneficiary households of the project have cultivated medicinal plants in 1.15 Ropani of land (Ropani = 500 M2) (Table 4).
Table 4: MAP cultivation in private land in 2011
| VDCs | Number of households trained in MAPs cultivation | Number of households practicing MAP cultivation | Seedlings in home nursery | Cultivated land size (M2) | Number of seedlings transplanted /HH | Number of plants survived, matured and harvested | Yield (in Kg) in one harvest |
| Shypru |
106 |
74 |
10,000 |
750 |
7,500 |
6,375 |
225 |
| Ramche |
95 |
67 |
6,000 |
500 |
5,000 |
4,200 |
140 |
| Dhunche |
41 |
29 |
3,600 |
400 |
4,000 |
3,400 |
97 |
| Bhorle |
18 |
12 |
7,500 |
350 |
3,500 |
2,975 |
106 |
| Total |
260 |
182 |
7,300 |
576 |
5,758 |
4,894 |
165 |
Source: Estimate of project staff and leader farmers through farmers field visit, 2011
The majority of farmers have cultivated Medicinal plants as a single crop for better benefit. The income from MAPs is almost three times higher than cereal crops (maize, wheat and millet) and potato. While the marginal farmers who have small patch of land and cannot wait for long gestation period of MAP species have practiced mixed cropping.
Sustainable production of Swertia chirayita seed has been ensured by the project. On average a trained farmer cultivating this species produced 4kg of seed in one harvest (Table 5). However, every farming household had no practice to produce seed after harvest. They only sorted out small amounts of seed required for their home nursery, and the rest is left carelessly. Some farmers got the seeds after harvest for their domestic use and sale outside the village. Two farmers reported that they sold 4 kg of seed in Kathmandu in 2010.
Table 5: Swertia chirayita cultivation in private land and estimated seed production in 2011
| VDCs | Total number of households trained in MAP cultivation | Total number of trained farm households cultivating Swertia chirayita in private land | Mean production of seed (in Kg) in one harvest | Potential per household to produce seed |
| Shypru |
106 |
74 |
225 |
5.00 |
| Ramche |
95 |
67 |
140 |
3.50 |
| Dhunche |
41 |
29 |
97 |
2.25 |
| Bhorle |
18 |
12 |
106 |
2.65 |
| Total |
260 |
182 |
165 |
4.12 |
Source: Estimate of project staff and leader farmers through farmers field visit, 2011
On average, 40 kg of harvested dry Swertia plant contains one kg of seed. The project beneficiaries can produce 30 tons of plants and 7 quintals of seed in one harvest. The price of one kg seed is Rs 9,000 (1 USD = 71 NPR) in local market but the local traders pay only Rs 4000-6000 per kg. Besides the project farmers supplied/sold required amount of seed in local market for nursery to other conservation projects and individual farmers willing to develop home nursery.
5. Outcomes
5.1. Change in land use pattern among the project beneficiaries
Out of 139 household heads surveyed for information (60 HH heads), 43 percent were literate and (69 HH heads) 57 percent were illiterate. Average household size of the project beneficiaries was 5.9 persons which is relatively higher compared with the national average of 5.4 persons (NLSS, 2004). There was no substantial change in occupation of people in the project area. However, the people are gradually motivated towards MAP cultivation in private land as an impact of the project and growing attraction towards tourism and seasonal hotel business as a result of growing numbers of visitors in Gosahikunda, a Hindu religious place and Lamtang National Park. Small change in land use pattern has been observed among the project beneficiaries. Average land holding size of the project beneficiaries including all types of land was 9.9 Ropani before the project which increased marginally to 10 Ropani after the project. This increase was contributed by purchase of 10 Ropani of Khet (lowland) by project beneficiaries from others and extension of 9 Ropani of Pakho (upland) in marginal area (Table 6).
Table 6: Change in land use pattern among the project beneficiaries
| VDCs | Total number of households trained in MAP cultivation | Total number of trained farm households cultivating Swertia chirayita in private land | Mean production of seed (in Kg) in one harvest | Potential per household to produce seed |
| Shypru |
106 |
74 |
225 |
5.00 |
| Ramche |
95 |
67 |
140 |
3.50 |
| Dhunche |
41 |
29 |
97 |
2.25 |
| Bhorle |
18 |
12 |
106 |
2.65 |
| Total |
260 |
182 |
165 |
4.12 |
Source: Baseline survey 2008 and line survey 2011
Note: Figures in the parentheses indicate total land area of the surveyed project beneficiaries
The project constantly educated project beneficiaries on cultivating MAPs in marginal land and in their upland terraces for better income. As a result the 33 Ropani of land left barren before the project due to insufficient rain for crop cultivation, lack of labor at household, high investment compared to its return and destruction by wild life was brought under cultivation, particularly for MAP and other crops (Table 6).
5. 2. Change in livestock herd size among the project beneficiaries
Small change in livestock herd size was observed among the project beneficiaries. Overall the livestock herd size was 9 per household before the project which increased to 10 after the project. (Table 7 ) Livestock herd size of buffalo was increased for milk production and sale along the Kathmandu-Dhunche transportation route and sheep and goat in northern part of the district for income generation. However, the herd size of ox declined slightly and the size of cow remained constant. Number of chicken raised at household level also increased remarkably as the demand for poultry products increased along the transportation corridors (Table 7).
Table 7: Change in livestock herd size before and after the project
| No | Type of livestock | Before | After | Change (in No) |
| 1 | Buffalo |
0.9 |
1.2 |
0.3 |
| 2 | Ox |
0.9 |
0.8 |
-0.1 |
| 3 | Cow |
4.0 |
4.0 |
0.0 |
| 4 | Sheep/goat |
3.0 |
4.0 |
1.0 |
| 5 | Mull/horse |
0.2 |
0.2 |
0.0 |
| 6 | Average herd size |
9.0 |
10.2 |
1.2 |
| 7 | Poultry |
4.0 |
6.0 |
2.0 |
Source: Baseline survey 2008 and end line survey, 2011
5.3. Change in level of food sufficiency at household level
Food sufficiency is measured counting the support from own farm produce and buying by other cash income generated from sale of household level farm produce. Before the project 16 percent of farm households could support food only for three months from own produce whereas it declined to 10 percent after the project (Table 8 )
Table 8: Change in food sufficiency level
| No | Food sufficiency by moths | Before project | After project | ||
| No of HH | Percent | No of HH | Percent | ||
| 1 | Sufficient for three months |
22 |
16.0 |
15 |
10.0 |
| 2 | Sufficient for six months |
104 |
75.0 |
90 |
65.0 |
| 3 | Sufficient for nine months |
13 |
9.0 |
34 |
24.0 |
| Total |
139 |
100.0 |
139 |
100.0 | |
Source: Baseline survey 2008 and end line survey 2011
Similarly, 75 percent of farm households had food sufficiency for six months before the project which declined to 65 percent. Importantly 9 percent of farm households before the project had food sufficiency for six months before the project which increased to 24 percent after the project (Table 8). Similarly, slight change was observed in sources of income to complement the food deficit among the project beneficiaries. Farmers reported that the contribution of wage labor, sale of livestock and sale of livestock products declined marginally and the loan from relatives declined significantly compared with before the project (Table 8).
Table 9: Change in sources to complement the food deficit at household level (N=139)
| No | Source to cover the food deficit | Before (No HH) |
At the end (No HH) |
Change in No | Change in % |
| 1 | Wage labor |
11 |
6 |
-5 |
45.0 |
| 2 | Seasonal employment during tourist season |
44 |
48 |
3 |
7.0 |
| 3 | Loan from relatives/neighbor |
25 |
5 |
-20 |
80.0 |
| 4 | Sale of livestock |
8 |
7 |
-1 |
12.0 |
| 5 | Sale of cash crop (Potato & veg.) |
62 |
65 |
3 |
5.0 |
| 6 | Sale of livestock products |
97 |
90 |
-7 |
7.0 |
| 7 | Sale of agricultural products |
9 |
6 |
-3 |
33.0 |
| 8 | Sale of NTFP/MAPs (Chairato) |
– |
131 |
131 |
94.0 |
Source: Baseline survey 2008 and end line survey 2011
Sale of NTFP including MAPs was not reported before the project whereas 94 percent of surveyed farmers reported that this was one of the important sources of income to complement the food deficit (Table 9). Thus, it can be concluded that the project has contributed significantly to reducing food deficiency in the district through increased source of income by selling MAPs produced in farm plots.
5.4. Change in cash income among the project beneficiaries
One of the most important impacts of the project was observed in household income. Average household income among the target beneficiaries increased from Rs 31,084 in 2008 (before start the project) to Rs 34,450 (at the end of project) in June 2011 (Table 10). An absolute increase of income by Rs 3,366 per household was contributed mainly by medicinal plant cultivation in private land and its sale in Kathmandu. Mean income generated by project households from NTFP including MAPs was only Rs 3,604 before the project whereas it increased to Rs 6,500 in 2011. Income to project beneficiaries from this activity was 80 percent higher in 2011 compared with 2008. The project beneficiaries have cultivated medicinal plants (S. chirayita) in 1.15 Ropani of land in 2011. It means on average each beneficiary household is expected to produce 165kg of S. chirayita in his/her farmland which would yield Rs 66,000 per household. The project could not record this income because of its short duration.
Table 10: Change in mean household cash income before and after the project
| No | Source of income |
Before |
After |
Change |
Change in % |
| 1 | Seasonal employment |
2050 |
2150 |
100 |
5.0 |
| 2 | Sale of livestock |
1892 |
1500 |
-392 |
21.0 |
| 3 | Sale of livestock products |
4547 |
5000 |
453 |
10.0 |
| 4 | Sale of NTFP including MAPs |
3604 |
6500 |
2896 |
80.0 |
| 5 | Sale of cash crops (Potato.veg) |
1294 |
1100 |
-194 |
15.0 |
| 6 | Wage labor including portering during tourist season |
7935 |
8200 |
265 |
3.0 |
| 7 | Hotel business |
6072 |
6500 |
428 |
7.0 |
| Total mean |
31084 |
34,450 |
3366 |
11.0 |
Source: Baseline survey 2008 and end line survey July 2011
Income from seasonal employment during tourist season, sale of livestock products and wage labor including portering during the tourist season increased positively (Table 10). While there were slight declines in sale of livestock, cash crops and other non-specified sources of income. Decline in sale of cash crops particularly potato and vegetable was contributed by allocation of 1.15 Ropani of land for medicinal plants cultivation as it reduced total area under cash crops. Decrease in sale of livestock has compensated by increased sale of livestock products among the project beneficiaries.
5.4 Reduced pressure on wild MAP and increased biodiversity
Before the project was implemented, the three medicinal plants promoted by projects were locally threatened and were in danger of extinction in forests. There were very few farmers who cultivated these species. The discussion with project beneficiaries and district stakeholders revealed that the pressure on these species has been significantly reduced. Of the 139 farmers interviewed, almost two thirds (90 farmers) expressed the number of plants of these species increased in forests and substantially increased in farmlands. Seeds produced from these plants have contributed to expansion of these species in both forests and farms. The domestication has not decreased bio-diversity in both forests and farms since most farmers have introduced medicinal plants as mixed cropping into the existing farming system. No species have been removed. Only intensity of cropping of cereal crops and potato was reduced. The number of cultivated farm crops remained unchanged.
6 Lessons Learned and Recommendations
6.1 Lessons Learned- constraining factors
High expectation of farmers from the project: The farmers organized in groups by the project had expressed high expectation from the project at the initial phase of the project. Besides the technical and materials support for domestication of MAPs in their farmland, they also demanded other income generating programs, food support and other community development which were beyond the scope of the project. To tackle this problem, the project had developed strong synergy with poverty alleviation project funded by the Poverty Alleviation fund for cash support and income generating program. Besides, the project staff clearly informed the farmers on limitation of this project stating that it will focus more on transfer of technology for domestication and bio-diversity conservation of MAPs through demonstration plots, help to establish home nursery, educate and train them on MAPs cultivation and domestication techniques and exploring market for appropriate price of the products.
Limited patience among the farmers: Farmers have a tendency to seek immediate return because they are confronted with day to day problems. This type of attitude was problematic to cultivate MAPs like Padamchal in farmland which has relatively long gestation period to get return. Two farmers who participated in demonstration plot development in their private land ploughed their trail plots as the germination of Padamchal was relatively long. Farmers were educated on total production cycle of MAPs and time required to get reasonable return. Since then the farmers who have enough patience participated in MAPs cultivation in private land.
Invasion of wild animals: Grazing and invasion in MAP cultivation area near the forest by wild animals like deer, wild pig and boar from Lamtang National Park was another problem to cultivate these MAPs in private farmland. However, the Chairato has been identified best MAPs which is not destroyed or grazed by wild animals because of its extremely bitter taste. The project was unable to address this problem because it does not fall under the project jurisdiction.
Low technical knowhow on pest management: There was hardly any expertise in the district either in the project or in the line agencies of the government to identify nature and type of pest invasion in MAPs. Farmers estimated that about 15-20 percent of Chairato plants died due to pest invasion. Chairato plants were invaded by one type of insect white grub living below the ground locally known as Khumrekira. Project staff could not identify the pest and thereby recommend the appropriate treatment process instantly during field visit. However, the project managed to send a technician from Kathmandu to solve the problems.
6.1- Lessons learned -Contributing factors: Various factors contributed individually and collectively to the success of this project which are described briefly in the following sections.
Pool of expertise within the NAF/KAFCOL: NAF has been working in agro-forestry and NTFP sector since long ago and has a huge pool of expertise required for projects in this sector. It has pooled trainers, technicians and other expertise required for the project from its roster of members and volunteers. Besides, NAF also has 51% share in Kathmandu Forestry College which is attached with NAF. It easily got other expertise from the college as and when required. Overall it helped to provide appropriate skills to the farmers in MAPs cultivation and domestication in private land.
Synergy of this project with other projects: Local farmers demanded other community development and income generating programs to address their household needs which were beyond the scope of the bio-diversity conservation project. Therefore, the project has developed excellent coordination with other projects like Poverty Alleviation project supported by Poverty Alleviation Fund and conservation project supported by WWF Nepal to provide further support to farmers.
Reasonable market price of the products: The project established a direct link between the producers and big traders abolishing the role of the middle men in the district in collection and sale of medicinal plants. As a result, the farmers began to get a reasonable price for their products and were motivated towards the project.
High profitability of MAPs cultivation in private land: Cultivation of MAPs, particularly S. chirayita, is found profitable to the farmers compared with cereal crops cultivation. It was estimated that 143 kg of S. chirayita can be produced in one Ropani of land (500 m2), if it is cultivated with proper manuring and extended other care like weeding and pest management. Total income from this MAP yields Rs 57,200 in one Ropani of land. While the income from cereal crops like buck wheat, wheat and potato yields only an average of Rs 10,000 in one year. Farmers said that the return from MAP can be obtained in 18 months because one year is required for preparing the sapling for plantation and six months for growth and harvest in the farm. Therefore they suggested to compare one crop of MAP with two year cereal crops grown in one unit of land. Income from cereal crop in one Ropani of land to the farmers is just Rs 20,000 while it is Rs 57200 from MAP in the same land management unit.
High spillover effects: As the indirect project beneficiaries knew from the direct project beneficiaries about the profitability of the MAP cultivation, they were motivated towards its cultivation and project. The indirect project beneficiaries purchased MAP plants from the direct project beneficiaries produced in their home nursery and began to cultivate in small patch of land. The home nursery owners sold S. chirayita seedlings to other farmers. This project was successful in demonstrating a high level of spillover effects over a short time period.
Environmental and Biodiversity conservation benefits: Overall the project activities had no harmful environmental impacts. Adequate and balanced application of inputs especially organic manure was applied to keep the soil fertile and prevent soil degradation. The introduction and promotion of MAPs species increased the diversity of the area and farmers began to get benefits from using this diversity through selection of the desired MAPs species. As explained earlier, the species such as S. chiraita, V. jatamansi and R. austral were almost at the verge of extinction due to their high market value followed by unsustainable harvesting in natural habitats. The domestication of these species by this project enhanced the natural resource base in the forest as it helped to reduce the haphazard collection and bring a balance to natural ecosystems.
Most farmlands are located on steep slopes in the mountains of Nepal where farmers were practicing a cereal-based land use system that requires intensive soil tillage, particularly frequent ploughing and hoeing. As a result, farmlands in the hills had been losing top soil at rates of 8 to 12 tons/hectare per year (Pandit 2001). Due to the combined effect of soil erosion and farmers’ limited affordability to apply adequate amounts of manure and fertilizer, soil fertility has steadily deteriorated (Neupane and Thapa 2001). As the MAP cultivation required less tillage (earth work) than cereal crops; it obviously reduced the soil loss and helped to decrease soil erosion and hence increased soil fertility.
6.2 Recommendations
Based on analysis of major outputs and outcomes of the project and experience gained during its implementation following recommendations are made.
- Analysis of attitude and behavior of target farmers towards MAP species and their domestication in farmland prior to implementation of such project helps to prioritize the inputs and resources on their preferred species. Baseline survey did not cover this aspect, as a result the project simultaneously promoted three species i.e. Padamchal, Sugandhawal and Chairato. Among these species, Chairato was preferred for domestication by farmers.
- Pest management emerged as one of the major problems in cultivation and domestication of MAP species in project area. The project was not prepared sufficiently to address this problem. Therefore, it would be better if adequacy of technical expertise required in the ground before implementation of such project is assessed and necessary arrangement is made accordingly.
- The formation of cooperative for post project activities was relatively late in this project. Therefore, it is recommend to form such cooperative in time so that it can be matured during the project period and can take over the post project activities for sustainability.
- Duration of the project was too short for changing farming behavior of the farmers and biodiversity conservation. Changing farming behavior of the farmers from traditional cereal crop to MAP type cash crops required relatively longer time. Therefore, it is recommended to design such project at least of 5 years duration.
- The farmers groups formed by the project still need technical back up and support to become full phased leader farmers in MAP cultivation. Therefore, it is recommended to develop post project mechanisms to support these farmer groups. A pro-poor community based forest enterprise model is recommended for future implementation, which not only increases income from MAP resources but also helps conserve resources in both farms and forests.
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