There is a growing recognition that biological diversity underpins ecosystem health and thus the resilience of natural systems (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Likewise, diversity of culture, which includes lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs (UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity 2002), is considered to be an integral component of many ecosystems (CBD COP Decision V/6), and has the capacity to increase the resilience of social systems (Pretty et al. 2009). Such considerations have led, among other things, to a range of literature on socio-ecological systems (SES) examining how site-specific natural resource management has evolved into coupled systems where the ecological characteristics of a system are inextricably linked with the cultural characteristics of the people interacting with it (Binder et al. 2013). The concept of socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS) further expands and strengthens this definition by placing emphasis on the potential for such coupled systems to be specifically shaped to ensure long-term productive capacity, the basis for human well-being and sustainable societies throughout history (Blasiak and Nakamura 2013). According to Gu and Subramanian (2014), SEPLS are “dynamic mosaics of habitats and land uses that have been shaped over the years […] in ways that maintain biodiversity and provide humans with goods and services needed for their well-being”. The complex interactions between nature (biological diversity) and culture (cultural diversity) that form SEPLS over time are defined by the rich variety of local knowledge often referred to as Traditional Ecological Knowledge, which dynamically adapts to help “monitor, interpret, and respond to dynamic changes in ecosystems [while increasing resilience or] the capacity to recover after disturbance, absorb stress, internalize it, and transcend it” (Berkes et al. 2000: 1252). Such a “knowledge-practice-belief complex” gradually develops and improves through trial-and-error learning (Berkes et al. 2000), and has played a critical role in the survival of islanders who are especially vulnerable to rapidly changing natural environmental conditions (Hong 2013). In the Urato Islands, a variety of locally-adapted and socially embedded knowledge and practices that help to cope with dynamic changes were observed during this study.

Over many years, people in the Urato Islands have nurtured harmonious relationships with their surrounding SEPLS, and developed an in-depth knowledge of how to maintain them in a sustainable manner. Many examples exist, for instance where the communities spontaneously set dates on which clams were to be collected, as well as upper limits for the maximum amount that can be harvested each year to avoid overexploitation of this common resource. In 2015, one person per household with fishing rights is allowed to harvest up to 10 kg of clams at a time in a designated container at allocated beaches (in rotation) on six occasions in total between mid-April and mid-May, while simultaneously being encouraged to remove Glossaulax didyma, which has caused severe damage to the clam populations of the islands (Interview, April 2015). There is no formalized rule as such, but community members spontaneously organized themselves to set the limit, since they noticed a decline in clams due to an increase in alien species. In another example of optimal use of natural resources in the Urato Islands, although starfish are regarded as an enemy by fishermen, the local practice is to use collected starfish for productive purposes. After first drying them in the sun, the starfish are applied as a natural fertilizer to vegetable crops to boost yields in the productive landscapes near the seashore (Figures 4). Crushed oyster shells, which are categorized as industrial waste by the local government, are also optimally used as a source of soil/plant nutrition in the vegetable fields. These are examples of the cyclic use of resources based on traditional knowledge or wisdom that is unique to the SEPLS in the remote Urato Islands, where cultural practices have developed to make optimal use of available resources. While not all these practices are specifically regarded as adaptive or coping mechanisms by the islanders, many expressed their wish to continue living in harmony with nature, and to pass their experiences and skills on to the new generation (First community dialogue, August 2012).

People in the Urato Islands also exhibit a deep-seated feeling of awe and appreciation for nature, which finds expression in a range of different ways. There is a stone monument to which people used to pray for rain, and each island still holds an autumn festival every year for good harvests. Passing down such traditions and customs seems to have also strengthened the cultural and spiritual linkages of the communities with their surrounding landscapes and seascapes, forming vibrant SEPLS. Meanwhile, some community members express regret that certain traditions are disappearing, a change which they primarily attribute to the aging population of the islands, which is considered to be a serious challenge (First community dialogue, August 2012). People in the Urato Islands, like many other coastal communities in Japan, see the mountains and sea as being connected and understand that protecting the upstream environment results in better harvests in the downstream near-shore ocean areas. Based on this belief, it was once common for fishers’ households to make a pilgrimage to Shinto shrines located on the hilltops of the Three Mountains of Dewa (Dewa Sanzan), which are located far inland within the Tohoku region and are considered as sacred sites for fishers among others. This tradition, however, has not been practiced for many decades.